Arguing a position

Defining the Issue

Deciding what kind of question is at issue 

Some experts consider these 6 categories to be progressively inclusive because claims in one category typically depend upon claims in the category preceding it. 

1. Fact:  Does X exist?  Did X occur?
2. Definition:  What kind of thing is this?  What category of things does it fit?  What does the category label mean?  (Clear and defined terms are essential, especially highly abstract words such as justice, equality, quality, and maturity.  Definitions may take an entire paragraph or more.)
3. Cause or Consequence:  What caused this thing?  What will happen because of it?
4. Interpretation:  What does this mean?  What is it like that we already understand?
5. Value:  Is this thing good or bad?
6. Policy and Procedures:  What should be done?  How should it be done?  Who has the authority to do it?

Tests for an Argument Topic/Thesis

• The topic will be disputed and…
  • is controversial (more than a few people disagree)
  • is narrow enough to argue in the space and time available
  • is something you care about
• The thesis must be an arguable claim that…
  • concerns a conclusion drawn from evidence
  • can be disputed: others might take a different position (not a single verifiable fact)
  • can be disputed: not based solely on personal taste or belief

Using Reason To Support Your Thesis

Your thesis or claim is a conclusion you reach by reasoning about evidence.  Two methods of reasoning are induction (you observe your evidence or infer a generalization from that; you predict something about the unknown based on what you know; you create new knowledge out of old) and deduction (you proceed form a generalization to your own specific circumstance; you apply old information to new information).  Both induction and deduction use the elements of argument: claims, evidence, assumptions, and qualifiers.

1. claims– positive statements that need support
2. evidence (also sometimes called data or grounds)- the facts, examples, expert opinions, and other information that support the claim.  Ask of evidence: Is it accurate? Adequate? Relevant? Representative?
3. assumptions– these are the writer’s underlying-often unstated-beliefs, opinions, principles, or inferences that link the evidence to the claims.  The writer’s assumptions justify or warrant making the claims on the basis of the evidence provided.  For example: Claim= Chemistry faculty should evaluate the lab’s quality.  Assumption= Chemistry professors are the most capable of evaluating the lab’s quality.
4. qualifiers or hedges– these words and phrases, such as may, might, perhaps, in the following circumstances, make the writer appear cautious and thoughtful, and allow for exceptions to the rule.

Distinguishing Facts, Opinions, Beliefs, and Prejudices in an Argument

The acceptability of a claim depends partly on which of the following categories it falls into.

CAUTION: Claims of belief or prejudice that look like reasonable, “considered opinions” often appear online.  Anyone can post anything on the Internet without passing it through an editorial screening like that undergone by books and articles in journals.  The filtering of such Internet materials is entirely up to you as a reader and researcher.

A fact is verifiable–one can determine that it is true. It can be misinterpreted or distorted but it is ultimately verifiable, so it does not make a worthwhile argument by itself. (Ex. The cost of medical care is rising).

An opinion is a judgment based on evidence, an honest attempt to draw a reasonable conclusion from evidence. Expert opinions are the judgments formed by authorities on the basis of their expertise and own examination of evidence. (Ex1. Mandatory drug testing in the workplace violates constitutional freedom. Ex2. Mandatory drug testing in the workplace is essential to increase employee productivity).

A prejudice is an opinion based on insufficient or unexamined evidence.  It is an inaccurate generalization about a group of people, things, etc.  This kind of assertion has no place in an argument, except as something to be disputed. (Ex.  Teenagers are irresponsible.) (Ex.  Trailer homes are disgusting.)

A belief is a conviction based on cultural or personal faith, morality, or values.  It expresses a viewpoint (like an opinion), but is not based on facts and other evidence.  Beliefs cannot serve as the central claim of an argument since they cannot be disproved by facts or even contested on the basis of facts.  However, statements of belief can serve as a kind of evidence in an argument, and they often form the assumptions linking claims and evidence.  (Ex.  Capital punishment is legalized murder.  [The writer would need to provide evidence to support this belief, would need to show how capital punishment relates to murder.])

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