Racial and Ethnic Differences in the African Society

Executive Summary

The African continent, just like most of the societies around the world, is endowed with numerous ethnic and racial groups. The South African society is a representation of this deep heritage, and a manifestation of the ills of racial and ethnical stratification and conflicts. It has various ethnical groups, including the Black Africans, where the Sotho and the Nguni account for over 90% of the population; the Whites who remained after the end of the colonial period, and who account for about 13% of the total population; the Indians who are the minority and account for around 3% of the population; and the Coloreds who comprise a mixture of blacks and the Whites, and account for about 9% of the population. This research paper analyses the ethnical and racial heritage of South African society, as well as issues of stratification and conflicts arising as ethnical problems. In addition, it also draws comparison from the American society, considering themes of racial groups, ethnical conflicts, and stratification.

Prejudice and discrimination is also widely discussed in the paper, citing practical examples in the society. Discriminations against color, religion and social class have been found to manifest clearly in the African Society, where the Whites are considered of a higher class than the Blacks. Access to basic human needs, knowledge and practice of human rights and equitable distribution of resources is not implemented by the state and the individuals themselves. As a result, most Blacks find themselves living way below the poverty line, while their counterparts live way above it.

Ethnic stratification, which refers the uneven distribution of material rewards, advantages, power and opportunities among ethnic groups, has been have a great bearing on the ethnic problems and conflicts experienced in the society. Vivid examples illustrate the effect of this kind of system on the lives of a given society, particularly in South Africa, where the Blacks are treated as slaves and laborers while the Whites enjoy great autonomy and influential positions in the government. The research reveals that most Blacks are not educated, as they did not have equal opportunities of access to schools and higher institutions of learning. The HIV pandemic has been mentioned as one of the fuelling factors to the creation of a wider gap between these ethnic groups, in addition to misuse of power by politicians to polarize them.

Scholars have used various models to try to conceptualize the causes and nature of ethnic conflicts in South Africa. These include the modernization theory, the argument that ethnicity is a fixed and biological characteristic of communities and individuals, the instrumentalist argument, and the human needs theory. They posit that failure of governments to ensure equitable resource distribution is a driving force towards ethnic tensions. The paper concludes that ethnicity is a thing of the past, and initiatives by the both the state and individuals should be implemented to abolish it.

Ethnic Groups, Stratification and Conflicts in South African Society

Africa is a continent with multiples of ethnic and racial groups, each having its own dialect and culture. Though some groups are generally larger than others, all the ethnic groups are distinct, and represent a rich heritage of their traditional cultures. These groups are spread all over Africa, segmented into Northern Africa, Western Africa, Horn of Africa, Central Africa, Eastern Africa and Southern Africa (Badru, 2010). One such outstanding country in Africa that represents deep cultural, racial and ethnic differences is South Africa, which was the longest to be ruled by the Western countries.

South Africans manifest a rich and wide array of ethnic and racial backgrounds, which became particularly explosive at the time of the apartheid, when it was used by the government for racial and political reasons. The whites that lived in this society attributed the warfare of centuries in the region to the distinct nature of its people’s origins, instead of the economic and social difficulties faced during that time. The government, on the other hand, imposed strict and rigid tribal and ethnic categories on a fairly public reality, labeling each black African with a tribal affiliation and identity, using a single classification of race (Piskunova, 2013). The year 1991, the South African law categorized the population into form main racial groups. The first was the Black Africans, where the Sotho and the Nguni account for over 90% of the population; the Whites who remained after the end of the colonial period, and who account for about 13% of the total population; the Indians who are the minority and account for around 3% of the population; and the Coloreds who comprise a mixture of blacks and the Whites, and account for about 9% of the population (Cherry, 1994). The current leadership and law of South Africa have abolished these racial divides, but a majority of the population still view themselves along these lines.

The Blacks form the majority of the population of South Africa, representing about 75% of the total population. This category consists of several groups, including the Zulu, Khoi-San, Ndebele, Sotho, Venda and Shangaan, among others (Badru, 2010). Most of the Blacks live in the countryside, where they are hunters and gatherers, while some are farmers. Those who received education from the missionaries work in the town as laborers, while some few influential ones also emerged. As earlier mentioned, the apartheid warfare overstressed the ethnic differences between these groups, especially between the non-whites and the Whites, with a smaller friction existing within the black groups as well, for instance, the Zulus and the Xhosas. The latter were turned against each other, rather than against the government. The policy which was in place during that time about racial segregation was in favor of the white minority, and until today, the consequences of this policy are still felt (Piskunova, 2013). The Black majority, whose population is also fast growing, occupies the poverty-stricken parts of the country in the outskirts of the cities which lack in electricity, sufficient water and sanitation. These residents are also illiterate, contributing to the high crime rates in these regions.

The Whites are mainly descendants of the Dutch, English, German and French settlers, who settled at the Cape. The non-Whites comprise about 89% of the Colored community, which consists of a mixed race group of Indians, Malays, and Africans (Cherry, 1994). The many ethnic groups present in the South African society has prevented it from being an ideal multi-cultural society as a deep trench still goes through the population. The major disparity exists between the Blacks and the Whites, who live fairly distinct lives from one another. This disparity is the cause of major conflicts and stratification in the society.

The uneven distribution of material rewards, advantages, power and opportunities among ethnic groups is primarily due to stratification in every society. Ethnic stratification thus represents a structured inequality system, where people of a given society who are divided along ethnic lines receive different shares of an economy’s public resources (Piskunova, 2013). A clear picture of ethnocentrism sheds light on the ethnic stratification of the South African society, where some ethnic groups are considered major and dominant over the others. These groups are ranked highly, and receive preferential treatment from the state. These differences brought about by ethnic stratification are usually in the cultural and physical form. As earlier mentioned, even after the end of apartheid, poor conditions and treatment of Blacks as a minority has not been better (Badru, 2010). Economically, these Blacks still live way below the poverty line, while the Whites, or the Afrikaners, live way above it. This disparity is quite apparent and obvious in all sectors of the society, and the former are usually treated as slaves. Moreover, the strike of the HIV pandemic widened the gap between those who are affected and their counterparts, and it so happened that the Blacks are the majority in this category. The rate of infection in this country supersedes that of most African countries, thanks to the government’s inactivity and reluctance to offer remedial measures to all citizens equally.

Conflicts in the South African society have taken a major toll, especially in the past during the fight for independence. In all African countries, there is still a challenge of lack of peace and stability. Instead, they are a volatile mix of all sorts of hostility, instability, insecurity, poverty, and politically-driven corruptive deals (Piskunova, 2013). In essence, most of these countries, with South African being an embodiment, lack the political will and power to implement peace agreements, thus there is continuous conflicts and ethnic clashes. Moreover, politicized ethnical conflicts have more detrimental effects on the state and its people than any other form. Most of these arise due to public demand for cultural and ethnic autonomy; competing demands for scarce resources like land, power and money; and far-fetched conflicts between rival ethnic affiliations. In a nutshell, inadequate distribution and sharing of public resources, which culminates in marginalization of a certain group is the root of all conflicts in this society.

The Zulus and the Xhosas have been in constant fights and conflicts from the time immemorial. This could be traced back to the time of the apartheid, when politicians used these communities against each other for political gains. In addition, the Whites and the Blacks have also constantly fought as a result of marginalization of the latter, and giving favor to the Afrikaners, who are very few in number (Cherry, 1994). Economic analysis shows that it is the Afrikaners that control the economy of the country, while 89% of the population which is the Blacks is majorly slaves and lowly-paid laborers (Badru, 2010). Arguably, the cause of conflicts in the South African society can be blamed on mere psychology, especially the fear that people of different ethnic groups exhibit during power transition. Scholars have opined that extremists overestimate this fear, and use it to build upon the frictions already occurring between the communities to polarize them. These conflicts, according to Piskunova (2013), are a sign of a weak state, or those states that are embroiled in tradition royalties. The African states act in favor of one or some ethnic groups at the expense of others, thus fuelling ethnic conflicts. Additionally, past historical interactions between ethnic groups, especially between the Afrikaners and the Blacks have had the potential of producing heightened brews of conflicts between these two groups. Hitherto, these conflicts, though not pronounced, are still manifest, and are on the verge of erupting at any given moment, since the Whites have never been able to leave peacefully with their counterparts.

Prejudice and Discrimination

During the antiquity of South African leadership, the British and the Dutch fought with the natives to gain control of their resources and power. These formed the National party that led the country during the grueling period of the apartheid (Cherry, 1994). Later, the Apartheid brought a complete segregation between the Europeans and the natives, which gave rise to pure prejudice and discrimination. In the government offices, people were identified based on their skin colors and this did not particularly augur well with the Blacks, since they were not in power. It is the Afrikaners, as the Whites called themselves that controlled the resources of the state. Several Blacks have suffered in the hands of the proletariats, with many of the civil rights activists being sent to jail. The former President, Nelson Mandela, was imprisoned as a political prisoner, alongside many other natives. There were institutions and hotels which read “Whites Only”, and some of these, though not bearing the imprints, still remain distinct (Piskunova, 2013).

The Khoi San, who were true natives and indigenous people of South Africa, have been discriminated and labeled ‘colored’ denying them their patent rights of being called Afrikaners (Cherry, 1994). Instead, the Whites who were ruling assigned themselves the name, and obvious signs of discrimination and prejudice were manifest across all aspects of the societal life. The education system is one particular area that has deeply suffered from the seeds of prejudice, as many Blacks are not educated. They were not easily admitted into institutions of higher learning, and most of them lost hope in even trying (Badru, 2010). These scenarios are still evident today, and are a source of historical and cumulative hatred between these ethnicities.

Evidential cases of prejudice and discrimination are also manifested in resource allocation and distribution. For instance, the HIV pandemic, which has wreaked massive havoc in the state, has left many Blacks dead, widows and orphaned children. Due to the abject poverty of this ethnic group, the condition has worsened coupled with the government’s unwillingness to offer remedial assistance. The HIV badge has also increased stigma associated with the black color, and Whites rarely interact with them. Furthermore, intermarriage between these ethnic groups, especially the Zulus and the Xhosas is limited as it is marred with discrimination and prejudice (Piskunova, 2013). As a result, members of a given ethnicity practice local intermarriages, such that there is little interaction with the other communities.

Experts’ Opinion on Ethnic Problems in South Africa

The argument about conflict in the society in the perspective of experts is that the underpinning fact is that ethnical problems, especially conflicts are inevitable in a society where people still struggle for their rights, and they are denied basic human needs like recognition, identity, security, equality, participation and dignity. In the same respect, it is also argued that where a government seems to lack the will to safeguard the National interest, and its actions are seen to be biased in favor of a give ethnic group, resolution of conflicts and attainment of national democracy is an uphill task (Badru, 2010). Experts say that South Africa will be able to quickly resolve its ethnical problems, because of its fast-paced economic progression.

Scholars have come up with numerous ways of conceptualizing the origin and cause of ethnic problems in South Africa. The modernization theory that was largely applied in North America’s case has proven to be inadequate in all measures, coupled with the rise of separatist conflicts in that region. The persistence of ethnicity in North America has proven that modernity cannot interfere with it. Some other views stress that ethnicity is a fixed and biological characteristic of communities and individuals, meaning that the overriding importance and uniqueness of ethnic identity is supreme, and must be upheld. The instrumentalist argument, on the other hand, posits that the effect of distributive injustices and ethnic stratification are the main sources of ethnic problems (Cherry, 1994). It points out that in this sense, ethnicity remains a basic means of survival to the favored groups, thus might not easily be abolished in the interest of maintenance of the status quo. The human needs theory gives the cogent reason why there are continued ethnic clashes, discrimination and prejudice in South Africa. It shifts the blames of ethnic problems from mere primordial past to the inadequacies of the government institutions to implement changes and practice equality in their systems of governance (Piskunova, 2013). Experts advise that it is only through education and awareness that ethnic problems can be abolished to end the struggle of the Blacks in South Africa.

Comparison between South Africa and United States

The United States has an almost similar stratification system as the South African society. It is based primarily on physical appearances, where color is used as the main mode of discrimination. Religion has a major influence on the social system, where the Protestants have a higher say, followed by Catholics (white), Jews, and then Asians (Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, 2007). Lagging behind at the bottom are the Hispanics, Blacks, some Asians, and American Indians. One of the most obvious signs of divisions in the United States is the prejudice against the African Americans, who are seen as heathens, and this is used as a justification to make them slaves. Just as in the South African case, black is a key unit of distinction in the U.S., and the intensity of the color identifies one’s position in the stratification system, as well as dictating the opportunities available for a particular ethnic group. Just as found in the research, the White Protestants in the U. S. enjoy more preference than their black counterparts, owing to their standard of living and economic status (Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, 2007). Equal opportunities are not given to the other colored people as it is to the Whites, thus they end up occupying most of the key positions in the government. Though the number of ethnic clashes has gone down with the spread and general acceptance of democracy, there is still some tension between these ethnic groups clearly manifested in the various kinds of prejudice and discrimination against the minority groups.

Conclusion

Ethnicity is a wayward practice, which states and individuals must fight to abolish. Though historically ethnic affiliations were crucial in achieving independence, this has been passed with time, and currently, it has more problems than benefits. Governments’ unwillingness to engage in remedial measures and practice equitable distribution of resources is still the major factor that fuels ethnic conflicts. The current society in which people live in requires appreciation of each individual’s importance, and inclusion of all in the system of governance.

References

Badru, P. (2010). Ethnic conflict and state formation in post-colonial Africa: A comparative study of ethnic genocide in the Congo, Liberia, Nigeria, and Rwanda-Burundi. Journal Of Third World Studies, 27(2), 149-169.

Cherry, J. (1994). Development, conflict and the politics of ethnicity in South Africa’s transition to democracy. Third World Quarterly, 15(4), 613-631.

Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. (2007). Racial Attitudes in America. Pew Research Center. (http://pewsocialtrends.org/assets/pdf/Race.pdf).

Piskunova, N. N. (2013). Evolution of Ethnic Democracy in South Africa. International Affairs: A Russian Journal Of World Politics, Diplomacy & International Relations, 59(1), 194-200.