Science & Technology

 

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Science & Technology

Introduction

The two words science and technology are common terms in the world today, even in almost all schools. However, very few people can say there is a difference between the two words. More so, many people know that these terms are related, but only a few can tell what the relation is, as well as the relevance of the two terms to each other and their influence on each other. Finding out the difference requires reviewing the pioneers of the two fields in questions and their work in order to realize the difference. Through different technologies that have revolutionized the world today, a relationship between the two terms can be found. Science has been defined as the interaction of the natural phenomenon, which aims at investigating knowledge to understand principles and laws of nature and the way they interact. The scientific experiments focus on finding out answers to questions on the laws of nature for the purpose of knowledge only. On the other hand, technology focuses on coming up with techniques of doing things to help man in his work. Much of the invented technology is based on scientific knowledge that is used to make the technology. It utilizes human creativity with the laws of nature to make machines and devices. This can well be demonstrated by pioneers of science and technology.

Some of the early technologies that explain or illustrate this relationship better can be drawn from the steam engine and cinematography. Technology has come a long way, just as science has, with technology drawing much of its ideas from scientific knowledge. However, not all technology is reliant on the scientific knowledge. Some technology does not require scientific knowledge. Such technology is solely dependent on the creativity of the technologist. On the other hand, it is hard to determine whether science borrows from technology just as technology has done.

Discussion of Inventions

Steam engine

The steam engine had come a long way before it was operational and efficient. Though it worked in its first stages, it went through many improvements before it was efficient and effective. The steam engine was first used as industrial equipment in 1699, in England. The other steam engines by Newcomen appeared in 1712, and the Watt engine appeared in 1775 while the high-pressure steam engine of Trevithick and Evans appeared at the start of the 19^th century. The 18^th century was dominated by the first steam engines used for pumping water from mines. In 1698 Thomas Savery went ahead to patent a steam engine for pumping water, which was made of a cylinder that was alternatively evacuated and pressure would be put. The vacuum was produced by filling the vessel with steam that was then condensed by pouring cold water on the cylinder. Then water would be forced up from a lower level by the atmospheric pressure to fill up the vacuum. Pressure would then be exerted in the cylinder, to force the water up though a pipe combined to it. However, to pump water from deep mines more pressure was needed, which the Savery engine would not provide. If the Savery engine were to be used in the deeper mines, it would have to be lowered to a level of 20 feet from the water, and probably others on top of it. This required having more than one steam engine in the mine, which would mean putting boilers in the mines. This would be risky.

The Newcomen engine came in at the start of the 19^th century where Newcomen, a skilled mechanic made the steam engine that provided power using a vertical reciprocating lift pump. The engine looked like a well pump with a beam extended on one side, supported by a pivot with the cylinder below the other beam. The cylinder was cooled by a spray pipe injected in the cylinder. Thus, the cylinder required cooling and heating. The engine used the same mechanism where vacuum was created by condensing the steam, and the atmospheric pressure would force the water up. The Newcomen engine was more efficient and became quite a success. Later, around 1783 James Watt came in to improve the Newcomen engine. During this time, he was working as an instrument maker in the University of Glasgow when he was requested to repair one of the Newcomen steam engines. He realized there were problems of condensation with the steam engine, where heating and condensing took place in the same cylinder alternatively causing a waste of energy. He improved this by making a separate condenser that eliminated cooling and heating in the same cylinder. This way, both could be kept constant, with the condenser remaining cool, while the steam cylinder remained hot throughout. This increased the machine’s efficiency. Using the same principles of nature, he was able to make better engines, where the atmospheric law of pressure was applied.

Cinematography

Cinematography is yet another technology that has revolutionized the world by its capability of capturing motion pictures that are used in many ways such as recording of events among other things. Currently, almost everyone knows how to use a video camera that is quite easy to use with the most current being the digital with the capability of viewing and streaming videos at the same time. However, the history of the invention of cinematography and the art of recording motion pictures has come through a long process of inventions. This was after inventions and improvements by many pioneers of this technology. This started with drawn pictures that were then rotated around a light to show motion before the use of photographs to take motion pictures. Cinematography has been used in many fields including scientific studies, entrainment and teaching in class. “As a research instrument, it has been used in all the experimental sciences, enriching our knowledge and increasing our mastery over nature,[1]” (Michaelis 734). Cinematography is the recording of separate images on a continuous light-sensitive ribbon. It is shown in standard intervals to represent continuous movement.

The basic principle of cinematography is based on three aspects, which are mechanical, chemical and physiological. Recording of the separate images within a standard time interval requires rotating of the ribbon occasionally, which represents the mechanical movement of the light-sensitive ribbon on which the images are recorded. The chemical part is the use of a light-sensitive ribbon that registers the images on its surface when light is shed through. This is the chemical principle of cinematography that makes it possible to record the images. The third principle physiology concerns the ability through which the images are seen as a continuous movement representing motion. This is done through projecting the images at a certain frequency that can fuse the physiological aspect of persistent vision into a whole movement of the image. The history of cinematography revolves around the discovery of the light-sensitive ribbon that is made of the photochemical reaction of silver halides, mechanical movement of the images, and the physiological principle that concerns persistence of vision, discovered before the other two.

The invention of cinematography is not credited to one person or even one country. Rather, many inventors had to research for many years to make cinematography real and able to show photographic motion. The journey has not been easy, and many equipments and research work was conducted for all these years before having the first film as a form of entertainment. The discovery of persistence of vision was discovered through observing the whirling of a lighted or glowing stick that made a continuous circle. It was also noticed with painting a disc on a small part then rotating it, making it appear to be of that color. This was discovered by people such as Ptolemy who wrote about the disc, while others did a theoretical study of persistence of vision such as Alhazen, Leonardo da Vinci in the 15^th century among others. This theory was applied practically for the first time by J.A. Paris in 1826 through drawing of an image on both sides of a cardboard disc that was then rotated to show the two images simultaneously. The design was later improved by W.G. Horner by inclusion of the ribbon, where it was placed inside a slotted horizontal wheel making it possible for a few people to enjoy viewing together. One could also say that cinematography has borrowed from scientific knowledge to make the technology. For the inventors to make cinematography work they had to know about persistence of vision; hence, it borrowed from science.

Technology borrowing from science

As defined earlier, science is the study of the natural interaction of things and their principles, which aims at gaining knowledge of the nature. Science does not involve making machines meant to make work easier for humans or come up with newer ways of doing things. Rather, it is only concerned with finding answers to questions about the natural laws and principles. Technology on the other hand, aims at making machines that can be used to perform certain tasks to help man in making work easier. Despite the fact that technology is based on the creativity of man, much of his creativity utilizes scientific principles upon which the mechanism or the working of the machine is based upon.

The steam engine       

The steam engine was obviously made using scientific knowledge. The technological part of the machine is designing it to allow the principles of nature to take cause in a controlled way that provides energy. This is well illustrated by James Watt and Joseph Black. Black was credited for his study of the energy contained in steam and the way it works to exert pressure (Burstyn 64). However, he did not make use of it practically. Rather, he was only interested in explaining the phenomenon behind steam. On the other hand, Watt was interested in using the energy of the steam practically to perform tasks such as pumping water out of mines. Therefore, in his experiments, he knew the way steam energy works. In order to make a separate condenser for the Newcomen engine, he had to know that when steam is condensed, it occupies a smaller space, hence creating a vacuum (Burstyn 66. Therefore, injecting steam in a cylinder occupied a bigger space than when cooled. Upon cooling vacuum would be created and the atmospheric pressure would then act to raise the water up to occupy the void space. Therefore, he had to have knowledge of atmospheric pressure in order to make the engine.

Despite Watt refuting that technology utilizes scientific knowledge, this can be proven by the laws that make the engine work. Many cited that he got his knowledge from Black who conducted numerous studies on the concealed power of steam. Contrary to this contention, he claimed to have gotten his knowledge of steam from a boiling kettle, where the lead was pushed up. Whether he got his knowledge from Black or the kettle without help, the answer remains that science is used in technology, since the kettle presented a natural phenomenon where the steam pushed the lead. As science is defined, it is the study of natural laws. Therefore, where a natural law is used in technology, it remains to be scientific knowledge used in the technology. Conclusively, scientific knowledge was borrowed to make the steam engine, meaning that science is used in the making of technological devices.

Cinematography

Cinematography is yet another technology where scientific knowledge is used in a technological device. Cinematography has been defined as, “a series of separate images, recorded o the same continuous light-sensitive ribbon, exposed at standard intervals of time to represent successful phases of a movement[2]” (Michaelis 734). In order to have the images appear continuously to show the images in a complete motion, the images have to be presented in a quick rate of recurrence to fuse with the human vision. When the images reappear in a quicker frequency than the time it takes for a change to be recorded in the retina of the eye, it becomes continuous to show motion. Thus, the images present a continuous motion when shown in a quick frequency just as the glowing stick will show a continuous circle when whirled at a rapid speed. To make the images appear to be in motion, the innovators had to have this knowledge in order to know that a device could be made to show this motion as well as record it. This is one of the three principles behind cinematography, meaning that it has also borrowed from science, to make the device.

The other principle in cinematography is the chemical reaction of light, and the silver halides used to register images. Humans can facilitate chemical reactions through controlling them, but the process is usually natural and humans do not make it happen. The reaction between the light and silver halides is something natural, since light is natural, and the silver is yet another natural substance. The innovators only facilitated the reaction by placing the silver halides in the way of light to record the images on the ribbon. Therefore, cinematography again borrows from science to make its devices. The devices made to capture motion were technical, but the process or principle used was scientific. Therefore, cinematography has borrowed from science in order to make it possible to show continuous motion of pictures to the human vision where the image is registered in the retina for a fraction of a second before it changes. Therefore, when the frequency of the images is faster than the human vision can see the change in the image, the movement becomes continuous to show a picture in motion.

Science borrowing from technology

Many illustrations of how technology borrows from science have been shown considering the difference between the two fields. However, the tougher question is whether science borrows from technology or not. Despite technology being related to science, whether there is a mutual borrowing from each other is hard to tell. It is known that technology facilitates the study of science, and in some cases through luck or accidentally, science can be learnt from the technological devices. The biggest challenge is whether a natural phenomenon can be gotten from a device made out of human creativity that utilizes scientific knowledge to make the machines. More contravening is the fact that not all technology borrows from science, where some people cite that some technology are made, and the scientific principles are only realized later from the technology made meaning that science borrows from technology too.

Generally, the other much-debated definition of technology is the practical application of science, where man learns how to use science to his advantage. This is true for technology that utilizes science, but not all technology. As science advances, so does technology. Technology is advanced when the new knowledge is used to make technology. Consequently, as technology advances, it contributes to new scientific research; hence, science also borrows from technology through using it to show or prove new scientific knowledge. In the current age, due to advances in technology thanks to scientific knowledge, many scientific researches have been conducted, thus improving the knowledge of science.

Steam engine

Many people know today that steam engine used scientific knowledge to make it work the way it did. However, many reckon that steam engine did more for science than science did for steam engine. “The successful developments of the steam engine- separate condenser, expansive working, compound cylinder right down the steam turbine … were successful essays …solved in practice before they were solved theoretically,[3]” (Kerker 381). This meant that the men making improvements to the steam engine such as James Watt were technological and did not use science, considering the science behind making the separate condenser came to be explained later after it was already used. In addition, the making of the compound cylinder was explained theoretically after it was already working, meaning that steam technology contributed to scientific knowledge.

The scientific explanations derived the technology has been invented means that science had borrowed from technology. In addition, when the steam engine was made for moving the train and vehicles, the knowledge that steam could be used to turn wheels and move objects had never been theorized by the scientists, proving that science has also borrowed from technology. Considering science is the study of natural phenomenon, one could wonder how it borrowed from technology. However, it should also be considered that human beings make technology out of controlled natural phenomenon; hence, they facilitate the process through making devices. When the devices are made, some processes could be explained later, considering technology is sometimes experimental, through trial and era.

Cinematography

Without cinematography technology, it could have been hard for the scientist to realize that at one moment when a horse is running or galloping, all the limbs are off the ground. Cinematography was used to study the motion of birds while in air. Currently, when scientists want to understand laws of nature such as studying animals and the motion of fish while under water, they use cinematography to view and record for later reference in their laboratories. All scientists search for new knowledge through research that is carried out using technological devices in the current age. (Michaelis, Anthony 186). Even in the earlier ages, scientific experiments used technological devices. Almost all scientists in the current age make use of cinematography to show evidence of their work, where it is demonstrated to others. In some instances, cinematography is used where human beings may not be able to research without recording of motion. For instance, during the early inventions of cinematography, it was used to show the motion of Venus around the sun (Michaelis 739). Thus, scientific knowledge of how Venus travels across the sun was demonstrated through cinematography, where it could not have been proven or recorded in any other way. Pictures could not have proven the movement since they only show the image. Through cinematography, the motion was well recorded, proving that Venus travels across the sun. Therefore, science can also borrow from cinematography in many ways the same way cinematography has borrowed from science.

Conclusion

Science and technology are two fields that go hand in hand as evidenced above, where both borrow from each other in various ways. Although it was initially known that technology borrowed from science since it was considered the application of science, later debates have shown that science could also borrow from technology. Much of the technology today is used in various ways to facilitate scientific experiments in the laboratories to improve the knowledge of science deeper. Considering the steam engine and the invention of cinematography, it is evident that science has borrowed from technology, just as technology has borrowed from science in various ways to facilitate understanding of laws of nature. It is also evident that technology is not always reliant on scientific knowledge. It can come from the sole creativity of human mind, where scientific knowledge can be drawn from later. Thus, it becomes hard to separate the two fields, since each borrows from each other, while they could also stand on their own. Therefore, our tougher question has been answered, where it is evident that science can borrow from technology just as technology borrows from science.

 

Work cited

Burstyn, L. Harold. What Can the History of Technology Contribute to our Understanding?Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press 2010. Print.

Ferguson, S. Eugene. The Steam Engine before 1830.

Kerker, Milton. (Science and the Steam Engine.” Technology and Culture

2. 4 (1961): 381-390. Print.

Michaelis R. Anthony. “Cinematographic Evidence in Law.” The Quarterly of Film Radio and Television, 8. 2 (1953): 186-193. Print.

Michaelis R. Anthony. The Photographic Arts: Cinematography.  A History of Technology, 5 (1958): 734-752. Print.

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