Behavior Observation Techniques

Introduction

The study of psychology is largely concerned with seeking explanations for the different ways that humans behave on a day to day basis. Psychology being a scientific field dictates that all analysis needs to follow an empirical format that involves the collection of data in a systematic manner (Carver and Scheier, 2012). While this obligation to scientist in this field is meant to guide them towards quality research processes and consequently accurate conclusions about human behaviours, challenges unique to psychological research emerge. This is because empirical methods are often modelled on an abstract of laboratory experiments that have a controlled environment to allow scientists to collect data that has easily manipulatable parameters (Coolican, 2009).

With psychological research, the subjects of the studies are humans. Common sense as well as ethical concerns make it very difficult for social scientists to place humans in a controlled environment with the purpose of coming up with conclusions on different aspects of their behaviour. This is because of the infinite number of variables that affect humans as individuals as well as when they form part of a society. At the same time, controlling the environment with the full awareness of the subjects has a very strong potential of skewing the results due to our innate urge to present ourselves in the best possible light.

Observing people in their natural environment on the other hand would be ideal for the collection of data but this will place burdens that are close to impossible on the researcher due to the unpredictability of human behaviour (Robson, 2002). As a result of these challenges unique to the field, different behaviour observation techniques have been formulated to somehow circumvent the challenges and enable scientists to come up with meaningful and practical solutions to their research on human behaviour. To achieve this, researchers have to compromise on the two extremes of experimental design and interviews and operate on the middle ground. In this mode of investigation, the researchers apply some level of control on the environment under investigation (Stewart and Williams, 2005).

The Dimensions of Observational Research

Given the diversity of human behaviour, it is important to categorize the different orientations that can be taken up in the course of a research project investigating the same. These are three main continuums on which the six dimensions of observational research in psychology exist. On one of these paradigms we have Theory Testing and Exploratory Research existing on opposite sides while in the second we have Experimental and Naturalistic. The third continuum has Participant observational research on one end and Non-Participant on the other hand.

Pictorial representations of the three continuums

Theory Testing Exploratory Research

Experimental Research Naturalistic

Non Participant Participant

In the Theory testing dimension, the main motivation for research is to test a theory that is already in existence and this is done through collecting data on what people do in different situations they find themselves in. The studies that Milgram (1963) conducted on ‘Obedience and Authority’ fall into the Theory Testing dimension. The Exploratory dimension on the other hand focuses on the description of phenomena that a scientist will observe in the course of research. The subsequent generation of ideas will form the grounding for future research. It can therefore be said that exploratory research gives birth to theory testing. An example of Exploratory Observational Research is the study on conversations between Peruvian mothers and their preschool children that was conducted by Melzi and Fernandez in 2004.

The experimental dimension of observational research involves the imposition of various types of manipulation with the main goal being the development and formulation of causal explanations for different elements of human behaviour. The ‘Strange Situation Paradigm’ by Ainsworth et al in 1978 is an ideal example of the experimental dimension in operation. The naturalistic dimension on the other hand is based on comparisons between what can be considered as ‘real life’ scenarios and artificially stimulated situations. Naturalistic observational research may involve scientists attempting to test a theory or merely make new observations. The 1999 study based on observations on how parents supervised and instructed of their sons and daughters carried out by Morongiello and Dawber.

In the Non Participant dimension of Observational Research, the researcher will remain completely detached from the group under observation. This involves the maintenance of some distance between the observer and the subjects so as to ensure there is no direct communication between the person carrying out the research in the field and the individuals being observed in their respective capacities of scientist and subject. The reason why this is done by researchers is to minimize the risk of observational reactivity which will be manifested in subjects being conscious about what they are portraying. In 1974, Bem and Allen conducted a research project of this nature in their ‘Investigation of the cross-situational consistency in students’ behaviour and personality.’ In participant observational research, the scientist collecting data will join the subjects and this will be done with the aim of sharing in the experiential world that the subjects are part of during the duration of the study. A good example of this dimension of observational research is the 1973 study by Rosenhan in which researchers feigned mental illness so as to be part of the mentally ill population of patients who had been committed to a psychiatric institution.

Now that the different dimensions of observational research have been highlighted, one of them will be expounded on in this chapter. This is the Non Participant Dimension of observational research and it will be based on two main experiments conducted to investigate different phenomena related to human behaviour. These are Bem and Allen’s (1974) “Investigation of cross-situational consistency in student’s behaviour and personality” and Back et al’s “Emotional timeline of September 11^th 2001”(2010)

Non Participant Observation Techniques of Behavioural Observation

The key words of non-participant observation techniques are ‘Non-Participant’ which emphasize the fact the fact that the researcher or observer takes a position that is somehow tantamount to a bird’s eye view of the subjects under observation. What this means is that a scientist or group of scientists who are conducting this form of research will go to great lengths to maximize the distance between themselves and the people whose behavioural tendencies are being investigated so as to limit the chances of intrusion or modification of the subject’s behaviour due to his or her knowledge of being watched. At the same time, the distance must not be too great as there needs to be an allowance for accurate observations to take place. The distance therefore need not be physical and this then calls for creativity and innovativeness on the part of the researcher (s). This attribute of Non-Participant observation techniques therefore closely mirrors the Naturalistic dimension which will have a strong emphasis of real life situations making up the research. The researcher’s presence is therefore not compulsory for the research to take place.

Non participatory observation research can take on two forms of overt or covert. With overt research the collection of data is done in plain sight while in covert data collection the researcher will deliberately make an effort to conceal his or her intentions. These different forms of non-participatory behaviour observation approaches carry with them unique ethical concerns that have to be attended to by the researcher. These research configurations in public settings also have an influence on the manner in which researchers will collect their data. The researcher may therefore employ the use of field notes or video recordings in this dimension of behavioural observation. While video will adequately capture the subjects in their environment it has the potential of being intrusive and therefore interfering with the natural behaviour of the subjects. They may also turn hostile owing to the fact that this is seen as the intrusion of their privacy or personal space. Covert observation on the other hand contravenes ethical boundaries set in society as the line between this and stalking is blurred. Such are the ethical concerns that accompany whichever decision the researcher opts to take (Coolican, 2009).

The advent of digital media being offering a foundation for today’s communication has created new unique opportunities for researchers who are keen on or obliged to make use of non- participatory observational techniques. The internet for instance creates a wider more accessible pool of research subjects who can be observed without their knowledge by a researcher located in a remote location. The fact that access to the internet is relatively a ‘free for all’ affair, it is possible for a researcher to infiltrate digital spaces such as discussion forums or social media pages and silently observe the contributions of the members based on the subject matter being discussed. To do this the researcher simply has to sign up to the website and gain membership then continue as a silent observer whose presence is inconsequential to the behaviour and mannerisms of the subjects. Another reason why digital media is attractive to researchers using this technique is the ease with which data can be recorded. On webpages one can make use of screenshots, activity logs, the use of copy/paste to extract textual data and also the conventional save.

Reasons for the use of Non Participant Observational methods

There are several reasons why a researcher may choose to employ non-participant observational methods.

The first reason why a researcher will settle on Non-Participant observational methods is if he or she lacks access to a specific group of subjects. This results in the absence of a specific opportunity for the observation of a particular group. An example would be a research project on the behaviour of professional athletes during their training or the way parents will interact with their children when they are out in public. If the researcher is neither an athlete nor a parent, he or she has to engage in non- participant observations of the subjects by positioning themselves in situations that will provide an ample opportunity for observations to be made without any intrusion by the researcher (Takahashi, 1985).

Another situation that will lead the researcher to engage in non- participant observation is when participant observation poses significant risks to the observer’s person. At times participant observation may also be too difficult for the researcher to use. Examples of such situations include riots, mobs and even military battle fields which pose to the researcher the risk of mental or physical injury and also death. Since these situations are undesirable for the researcher, it becomes necessary for him or her to employ alternative means of collecting observations. In some cases the researcher may have the luxury of an insider who will furnish those involved in the project with first hand investigations about what is taking place in the battlefield or other environment. In other instances the researcher may take time to view video footage of the happenings that took place and these are often provided by news agencies that cover these events. The benefit of videos is that they can be used in the observation of historical events that would not have otherwise been accessible.

The third reason why a psychological researcher will be interested in using the non-participant technique of behavioural observation is if his or her interests go beyond what is expressly observed in the population of subjects. The research may be focused on more refined elements that emerge from the subjective differences in human behaviour. Date collected in such scenarios may be based on observations that the researcher makes on the way individuals make use of public spaces such as parking lots, playgrounds or game parks. In the third situation however concerns are raised about the reactivity of the researcher to situations that are being observed and this therefore goes back to the impact that non-participation will have on the research.

Knowledge requirements for Researchers who use Non-Participatory Observational techniques

Before a researcher embarks on the use of the non-participatory behavioural observation technique, he or she needs to be aware of several issues pertaining to this research technique.

The first thing that the researcher needs to bear in mind is the relevance of the subjects under observation to the research project being conducted. Given the fact that psychological research like research in general needs to be narrowed down depending on different variables and parameters, the person who is set to conduct the study has to have a criteria for choosing who to observe and who to assume if it is in a public setting. The differences that may determine this include the age of the subjects, their income, the gender, their ethnicity and perhaps even their level of education. This then determines the location where this will be conducted as well as the format of non-participatory research to be used.

Another thing that the researcher needs to bear in mind is the ethical component of the research study being carried out. As stated above, covert observation of research subjects may be taken as stalking or intrusion of personal space. In some cases such as when minors are involved it may become complicated due to the fact that parental consent is required and this will again skew the results as the children may be made aware of the presence of a researcher monitoring their behaviour (Ainsworth, 1995). When it comes to the application of this technique to electronic sources, there is bound to be a challenge of credibility of subjects due to the anonymity and ease of accessibility that the internet provides (Stewart and Williams, 2005).

The time period when the subjects will come under investigation also needs to be carefully considered because this also determines the type of subjects as well as the activities they are bound to engage in. This also determines the most appropriate method of non- participatory observation to be applied. If it is from the past for instance, the subjects can be observed through existing video footage or archived data that they generated or that which had been recorded. The different seasons and times of the year, day or week are also important as they have a strong bearing on what people will be doing and where they will be found. A study on hedonistic behaviour for instance will be best conducted over the weekend or during holidays while the relationships between students will best researched upon when school is in session. This is because the subjects will have taken up the roles of holiday makers and students respectively making them ideal for the study being conducted (Breakwell, 2012).

The safety and personal well-being of the researchers is also something that has to be carefully thought out prior to the conducting of a non- participatory research. While some situations are calm and relatively ordinary allowing the observer to easily blend in, others prove to be extremely challenging as a result of policies, violence, harsh natural conditions and even expenses. A researcher who wants to use this method to investigate the mannerisms of astronauts while in space will not necessarily be granted express permission to go on the mission. The same will happen for one who wants to observe sky divers or soldiers who are in battle. As a result of this, alternative methods that will allow for non-participatory observations will have to be used and this may be surveillance footage or reports from a person on the inside.

The duration of the research’s data collection process also needs to be taken into account by the researcher because of the differences in time periods that apply for different research projects. At times these are predictable such as the duration students will spend on holiday or in session. These situations oblige the researcher to work within the schedules of the subjects thus making it quite straight forward. In other situations such as during political turmoil or natural disasters, it becomes difficult for the observer to ascertain the duration that he or she will have to spend in the field collecting the relevant data. In such situations, contingency plans have to be made so as to ensure the success of the project goes hand in hand with the welfare of the observer.

The context of the observations also needs to be taken into account as this will help in the development of possible cause- effect analyses for the given subject population. The context is also important as it will help to justify or nullify certain elements of human behaviour that will be observed in the field. Aggression for instance will make sense if the researcher is aware about what is at stake at the time the study was conducted. The absence of appropriate contextualization of the research will increase the study’s propensity to be skewed in the direction of bias on the part of the observer or the researcher (Podsakoff, 2003).

A Discussion of Research Questions that this technique could address

A study into the behavioural changes of people during tough economic times. Given that financial scarcity presents profound implications on the lives of people, it is likely that periods of recessions are bound to lead to alterations in their behaviour. Such a situation will demand that researchers observe the subjects in different locations such as the place of work or in stores that offer significant discounts on items. The researcher will need to be aware of the previous economic position the subject was in and this may involve the scrutiny of his or her spending patterns thus raising ethical issues of privacy.

Another example of a research question that would be researched with this technique is a study on “The Cross Situational consistency in students’ behaviour and personality.” (Bem and Allen, 1974) This again demands the covert observation of the research subjects. In this situation, the researchers have to think about the significance of two variables, the personality of the subjects being observed and the impact that the environment has on the way they conduct themselves (Carver and Scheierg, 2012). Something else that the researcher will have to consider is where the focus needs to be between the subjects or their situations. In Bem and Allen’s case, they found out that it was possible to identify the priori situations and as a result point out the cross situational consistencies exhibited by students being observed.

Another example of a research question that could rely on this technique is “The emotional timeline of September 11, 2001” conducted by Back et al in 2010. In this instance the researcher had to be aware of the key emotional indicators and the emotions these words suggested. The time periods when different emotions gained prominence was also considered so as to generate meaningful figures for the timeline.

Examples of how Non- Participant Behaviour Observation Techniques have been used

Back et al’s “The Emotional Timeline of September 11^th 2001” (2010)

Following the 9/11 attacks there had been a marked increase in emotional distress among the members of the USA population due to the widespread deaths and injuries that were experienced. There fact that this led to noticeable behavioural changes obliged Back et al to formulate an empirical method of studying the changing emotions during the period. The method they chose was non- participatory and it involved the study of emotional words sent to text pagers in the period following the attacks. These pager transcripts were accessed from the internet and were published anonymously through the whistle blowing website Wikileaks (2009). The researchers made use of 216 data blocks that ranged from two hours prior to the attack to 18 hours after the attack. For each data block, the percentage of words pertaining to a specific emotion was established. The three emotions that indicate emotional distress are sadness, anger and anxiety and these were the ones being looked out for in the data blocks. The categorization of the words into these categories was based on the Linguistic Inquiry Word Count or LIWC (Francis and Booth, 2001). This enabled them to properly map these emptions on a timeline as shown below.

Evaluation of the above Method

This method performed quite well for a non-participatory approach since it met all the objectives of this approach to behaviour observation. For starters, there was completely no interaction between the subjects and the researchers and this meant that the subjects were able to carry out their communications in a natural manner.. The presence of online anonymous records took care of the ethical concerns as the researchers sourced it from a website that had displayed them publicly (Pury, 2011). The fact that these records were automatically generated serves to increase their accuracy. The potential for researcher bias or misinterpretation was significantly reduced by their consultation of the LIWC which provides accepted interpretations of the emotions suggested by certain words used by the subjects (Podsakoff, 2009). The time stamps that the different data blocks had also help to provide a context for the different percentages of the emotions that people had and this aids in the formulation of cause-effect conclusions about the study (Coolican, 2009).

Conclusion

This chapter has illustrated the significance of Non-Participatory Behavioural Observation techniques that can be used in the investigation of different human behaviours. The main reason why it is favoured by a section of researchers is its potential to allow the subjects to maintain their natural mannerisms while they are being observed. The different knowledge factors that researchers need to take care of prior to conducting this kind of data collection have also been highlighted in the chapter. Examples of the type of research questions that Non-Participatory methods can use have also been mentioned. The final part of the chapter has illustrated through an actual research project’s example the impact that Non-Participatory research can have on a research project. Despite the unique challenges posed to those who use this method, it is clear that the benefits will always tremendously outweigh the obstacles that will arise.

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